SB 

.C9 



AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY 

OF 

NIAGARA COUNTY 
NEW YORK 



A THESIS 

Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate Schooi. 
OF Cornell University for the degree of 

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 



BY 



MARSHALL BAXTER CUMMINGS 



[Reprinted from Bulletin 262, Cornell University Experiment Station.] 





Glass SBsg^ 3 

Book _-_ .0.3 



JANUARY, 1909 BULLETIN 262 

^ CORNELL UNIVERSITY 

,q^ AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF 

^ '^ THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 

Department of Horticulture 



APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY 

OF 

NIAGARA COUNTY 



Under the Direction of 
JOHN CRAIG 




By M. B, CUMMINGS 



ITHACA, N. Y. 
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 



IN bAUHANUB 

ORGANIZATION 

Op The Cornell University Agricultural Experiment 
Station. 



BOARD OF CONTROL 
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY 



the agricultural college and station council 

JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. 

ROBERT H. TREMAN, Trustee of the University. 

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the College and Experiment Station. 

EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. 

JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. 

HENRY H. WING, Professor of Animal Husbandry. 



experimenting staff 

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director. 

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology. 

HENRY H. WING. Animal Husbandry. 

JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture. 

T. LYTTLETON LYON. Soil Investigations. 

H. J. WEBBER. Plant-Breeding. 

B. M. DUGGAR, Plant Physiology. 
JOHN L. STONE, Farm Practice. 
JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry. 
MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. 
GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. 
ELMER O. FIPPIN, Soils. 

W. A. STOCKING, Jr., Dairy Bacteriology. 
HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology. 
G. F. WARREN, Farm Crops. 
LOWELL B. JUDSON, Horticulture. 
CHARLES S. WILSON, Horticulture. 
M. W. HARPER, Animal Husbandry. 
CHARLES F. CLARK, Agronomy. 
JAMES A. BIZZELL, Soil Investigations. 

C. A. PUBLOW, Dairy Industry. 
CYRUS R. CROSBY, Entomology. 

C. A. ROGERS, Poultry Husbandry^ 
P. J. WHITE, Farm Crops. 

D. REDDICK, Plant Pathology. 

E. R. MINNS, Farm Practice. 
G. A. CRABB, Soils. 

E. S. GUTHRIE, Buttermatmg 
M. F. BARRUS, Plant Pathology 
M. B. CUMMINGS, Horticulture. 

The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New 
York State who request them. 



Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County 



INTRODUCTION 
By John Craig 

The active campaign was commenced in July, 1905, by the writer, 
assisted by Messrs. C. S. Wilson and G. W. Hosford. The first orchard 
examined was the peach orchard of the late- Dr. Charles A. Ring on 
the Lake Road. Dr. Ring was a prime agitator for the institution of 
this work in Niagara County and extended the hospitality of his home 
for more than a week to the three persons who began the work. Other 




Fig. 26. — A general vieiv of the topography of the Lake Road region, Niagara County 



persons who kindly aided the survey in the same way in order to econ- 
omize funds, were Messrs. W. T. Mann, L. and Frank Bradley of 
Barkers ; S. W. McCollum and F. R. Wheeler of Lockport. Kindly 
cooperation was also rendered by Albert Eighme, George Pomeroy, 
Willard Hopkins, Frank Hall, Frank Balmer and John Witmer. Indeed, 
the fruit growers of the county generally should be thanked for the 
generous way in which they responded to our requests for data and 
general information. 

The following orchard inspectors were employed during the seasons 
of 1905 and 1906: Messrs. J. E. Coit, C. D. Jarvis, J. E. Howitt, C. F. 
Kinman, J. P. Stewart, C. F. -and L. A. Niven. The work was finally 
completed by the author of this bulletin, M. B. Cummings, in 1907. 



* Printed January, 1909, but withdrawn for reexamination of statistics, 
vised and reprinted for distribution May, 1910. — J. C. 

279 



Re- 



28o Bulletin 262. 

Cooperation by the Bureau of Soils. At the inception of the orchard 
examination, the desirabihty of adding to its completeness by securing 
a survey of soil conditions was immediately recognized. The matter was 
presented to the Chief of the Bureau of Soils through whose kind coop- 
eration a soil survey was authorized and completed in the summer of 
1906 under the immediate direction of Professor E. O. Pippin. The 
full text of this examination is set forth in the eighth Report of the 
Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1906, pages 69 to 117. Copies 
of the bound volumes of the soil survey are on sale by the Superintend- 
ent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
Separate copies of soil surveys may be secured by applying to the Bureau 
of Soils, except when the supply is exhausted. 

HISTORICAL NOTES 

In 1779, a large tract of country in the western part of New York 
was set off and styled Ontario. This embraced the entire region lying 
between the two lakes, including Steuben, Ontario, Yates, Allegany, 
Cattaraugus, Livingston, Chautauqua, Erie, Orleans, Wyoming, Gene- 
see, Wayne, Monroe and Niagara Counties. The subdivisions which 
erected these counties were made between 1779 and 1854, Niagara 
being separated from the group in 1808. At this time, Buffalo was 
little more than a village, Niagara County mostly in timber, and the 
old Ridge Road unopened. 

Fruit-growing has been associated with the progress of this county 
from its earliest settlement. It is recorded that Indian orchards existed 
here in the regions occupied by the Senecas and the Oneidas. The 
Sullivan expedition against the warlike tribes in western New York in 
1779, caused the destruction of thousands of fruit trees. Miss Stites, the 
author of the " Economics of the Iroquois," says : 

" The apple is the Iroqouis banana. From the earliest introduction 
of this fruit into New York and into New France from the genial plains 
of Holland and Normandy, these tribes appear to have been captivated 
by its taste and they lost no time in transferring it, by sowing the seed, 
to the sites of their ancient castles. No one can read the accounts of 
the destruction of their extensive orchards of the apple, which were 
cut down on General Sullivan's inroad into the Genesee country in 
1779, without regretting that the purposes of war should require this 
barbaric act. The Census (of Schoolcraft) will show that this taste 
remains as strong in 1845 as it was sixty-six years ago. Upwards of 
four thousand fruit trees were counted in the Senecas' territory alone 



Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County. 



281 



(1845), ^nd the Tuscaroras (this tribe occupied the present site of Ni- 
agara County) had over fifteen hundred fruit trees."' 

Apple-orcharding. — ^Apple-tree planting in Niagara County began, 
as it did in New England and the older states, by first setting out seed- 
ling trees. Many of these were subsequently top-grafted. There were 
practically three eras in the apple-orcharding history of western New 
York: First, the era of seedling apples; second, the era of top-grafting, 
when these were worked over to named varieties from New England ; and 




Fig. 27. — A part of the lawn surrounding the residence of Air. W. T. Mann 



third, the era which marked the establishment of the great commercial 
orchards of today, and the planting of Greening, Baldwin, Spy, and 
the like. 

Early nurseries. — It is recorded in Turner's history of Niagara County 
(1878, page 232) that in 1813, one Jairus Rose, living near Sanborn, 
sowed two acres of land to apple seed, thus starting the first nursery 
in the county. The young trees were distributed throughout the settled 
parts of the county. The price of these seedling trees was twelve cents 
each. It would be very interesting to know whether this distribution 
of seedlings did not give rise to some important local varieties peculiar 
to western New York. 

Among other nurseries established was that of Dr. William Townshend, 
near Lockport, about 1830. S. Cudaback and Timothy Cutwater 



282 Bulletin 262. 

maintained a nursery on the Lake Road between Wilson and Olcott 
about the same time. 

In 1839, Elisha Moody estabHshed a nursery on the Ridge Road 
northeast of Lockport. The founder was the first president of the 
American Association of Nurserymen. The original firm has been con- 
tinued by E. Moody & Sons now in business at Lockport. 

Messrs. Penfield and Burrell, of Lockport, were also in business be- 
tween 1850 and 1865, at the time when there was considerable activity in 
the planting of orchards. To these early nurserymen the county is largely 
indebted for the large commercial orchards now in bearing. 

VALUABLE FRUITS ORIGINATING ' IN NIAGARA COUNTY 

Niagara County has given to the State and the Nation some valuable 
varieties of fruit. The varieties noted below include only those which 
are of more than local significance. 

Niagara peach. — Like many good things, there is some obscurity 
as to the origin of this peach. Two men in the town of New fane, this 
county (Niagara), claim its discovery, but the most probable story 
of its origin is given as follows by J. S. Woodward. Lockport: 

" Fifteen or more years ago, Mr. P. H. Corwin began to grow peach 
trees for sale in a small way. In an orchard of Early Crawford from 
which he was taking buds, he noticed a very vigorous tree that bore very 
nice large peaches, and naturally he cut a good many buds from this 
tree. When the trees he sold began to bear, the owner noticed a marked 
difference in the fruit on different trees and made inquiry of ^Ir. Corwin 
as to the cause. This led to close inspection of the orchard from which 
the buds had been cut and established the fact that there was a variety 
very distinct from Early Crawford. In 1894, Mr. Corwin began to prop- 
agate this as a new sort, and at first called it Mammoth Crawford; 
but as this would lead to a confusion of names, Niagara was substituted 
and today it is known by no other name. The tree is a more vigorous 
grower, with heavier and darker green leaves and more stocky wood 
than the Crawford; nor does it load on as much fruit as the Crawford 
at its best. It begins to ripen about one picking later than Crawford, 
and the fruit is larger, more round and of better quality than the Craw- 
ford and holds out good in size to the last. Anyone going through an 
orchard of Crawfords with a few Niagaras mixed in, has no difficulty 
in distinguishing the variety even when there is no fruit on the trees." 

Niagara grape. — The Niagara white grape is one of the leading com- 
mercial grapes of the state. It originated in 1872 with the nursery firm 
of Hoag and Clark of Lockport, N. Y. It is the product of a cross of 
Concord and Cassidy described as follows by the originators : 



Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County. 283 

Hardy, healthy, vigorous and productive; wood rather long jointed; 
leaves large, thick, leathery and downy, often double-lobed ; bunch 
medium to large, 8 to 14 ounces in weight, compact and often shouldered; 
berry large, roundish to oval, uniform in size, with tough but thin 
skin, pale green changing to yellow when fully ripe ; flesh soft, tender, 
sweet and pleasant, and of good quality. This grape has attained a 
permanent place as the leading white grape of Ohio, New Jersey and 
New York, and is extensively planted in the grape districts of central 
and western New York. 

Somerset apple. — The Somerset is reported as having originated in the 
town of Somerset. It was first brought to notice by C. L. Hoag of Lock- 
port. Somerset is an early apple of sprightly flavor, and considered good 
for family use. The fruit is somewhat below medium, roundish conical 
in shape and of a deep golden-yellow color. The flesh is nearly white, 
tender, juicy, with a rich aromatic flavor. The quality is very good. 
The tree is upright and spreading in its growth. Somerset is especially 
noted for its earliness. It is said to be very productive. 

Pomeroy English walnuts. — These were introduced into Niagara 
County in 1876. Norman Pomeroy brought several walnuts home with 
him from the Centennial at Philadelphia and planted them in his garden 
in Lockport. From these native-grown nuts he raised a number of 
trees. Several varieties were obtained, and the best one was named 
by H. E. VanDeman the Pomeroy walnut. This variety has proved 
hardy and productive, and each year the nuts are saved for nursery 
plantings. A. C. Pomeroy is now in charge of the walnut nursery. 

THE OUTLOOK 

That this is encouraging, there is no question whatever. The pro- 
gressive, prudent apple grower of Niagara County should be, and is, 
prosperous. Notable examples of successes by men who engaged in the 
business under exceedingly unfavorable circumstances are not rare. 
When failure has occurred, it may usually be charged to one or all of 
the following causes : lack of capital, enterprise or knowledge, and 
extensive rather than intensive efforts. The bane of many beginners 
is insufficiency of capital, but this is not so fatal as inadequate knowl- 
edge. Then, many beginners develop too rapidly. A slow, steady growth 
is much better than a rapid, unhealthy growth. Niagara County pos- 
sesses substantial natural advantages for growing fine apples. Much 
of the soil is admirably adapted, the climate is favorably tempered by 
proximity to Lake Ontario. A large and growing market is near at hand, 
while the transportation facilities are much better than the average. 



284 



Bulletin 262. 



What, then, is needed? Better care of existing orchards; renova- 
tion of some orchards declining under present management ; the plant- 
ing of new orchards with high-grade varieties and their cultivation after 
the most approved methods ; and, finally, picking, packing and market- 
ing the fruit in a thoroughly business-like manner. 

The new apple regions of the Northwest Pacific are successfully 
competing, and in some degree securing the cream of the returns in the 
markets of the east. There is no ques-tion in regard to the innate ability 




Fig. 28. — A Niagara County homestead. Resideiice of the late Dr. Ring 



of the east to grow fruit of high quality, but so much of the grading 
and packing is faulty that the reputation of the entire product is thereby 
injured. 

The native as well as the introduced enemies of the apple are no 
longer seriously feared by the first-class grower, but the acme of success 
will not be attained until Niagara growers, in common with the fruit- 
producers of other great apple-growing counties of western New York, 
reorganize and remodel in large measure present methods of finishing 
and handling their principal orchard product. That such a reorgani- 
zation of method is now taking place and will go on rapidly in the future 
is conceded. 



APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF NIAGARA COUNTY 



GENERAL STATEMENT AND RESULTS* 

By M. B. Cum MINGS 

This bulletin is the product of field studies of apple orchards in Niagara 
County. It is a long story brietiy told. The purpose, however, is to 
present the facts in regard to orchard management in Niagara County. 
It is a contribution of knowledge to the actual status of the apple in- 
dustry of New York State. Contrasts and comparisons with condi- 
tions in Orleans (Bull. No. 229) and Wayne (Bull. No. 226) Counties 
can be made. The careful reader will find in the tables presented here- 
with, material for extensive studies. It would be interesting if each fruit 
grower would study these tables in relation to his own orchard. 

Detailed descriptions of apple enemies and factors of orchard manage- 
ment are omitted. For a full discussion of these subjects the reader 
should consult Bulletin 226, entitled "An Apple Survey of Wayne 
County," which is an exhaustive treatise of general apple-orchard 
problems. 

Methods of work. — The field studies were made in a manner very 
similar to that of previous surveys. The canvasser was provided with 
camera, note-book, bicycle, etc. The computations for yields and 
prices were based only on bearing orchards. In all cases, three bushels 
constitute a barrel. Only a few parts of the county were omitted. 
With the exception of Wheatfield, Pendleton, Royalton, and parts of 
Hartland, the entire county was surveyed. A few orchards as small 
as three acres were canvassed, although most of them of less than five 
acres were omitted. Thus, although many little orchards were left out 
large family orchards were included in this survey. 

Sice of the industry. — In 1890, according to the census report, Niagara 
County had 1,033,454 apple trees of bearing age, which was the largest 



* The orchard survey campaign. — This bulletin is the third in the series of 
orchard survey bulletins. The first two on the apple-growing of Wayne and 
Orleans Counties quickly ran out of print, attesting their usefulness in a very 
satisfactory way. The data for three additional surveys are in course of prepara- 
tion. These cover Monroe, Orange and Ontario Counties. Other surveys will be 
undertaken as time and means permit. 

285 



286 



Bulletin 262. 



number of any county in the State. In lyoo, this number was reduced 
to 924,086, which was still considerable above that of any other county 
in New York. A more recent census would undoubtedly show still 
greater reduction in the number of trees. With respect to yields for 
the year 1889, Niagara ranked second, producing 623.204 bushels 
of apples, and was exceeded only by Wayne County. For the year 
1899, Niagara produced 1,421,796 bushels and still ranked second, being 
exceeded only by Monroe with an excess of 14,595 bushels. 




Fig. 29. — An old story: An example of an orchard in which the trees are crowding 
each other and are now " fighting it out " 



Area in apples. — The entire area of the county comprises 522 square 
miles, or 334,080 acres, with an average of 46 acres in apples to the 
square mile. Furthermore, since there are 924,086 trees in the county, 
and since the average number of trees per acre is 38.2 it follows that 
there are about 24,190 acres in apples. This means that 7.2 per cent 
of the area of the county is planted to apple orchards. About three- 
fourths of the orchards are in the northern half of the county. More 
complete surveys were made in the lake-shore districts than elsewhere, 
although representative districts of the entire county were surveyed. 



Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County. 



287 



Physiography* — Niagara County measures about 18 by 29 miles, and 
embraces an area of 522 square miles. It includes parts of two rather 
distinct topographical regions. The northern part is the old lake bed, 
often called the Ontario plain, which extends from the lake to the base 
of the escarpment; and the ridge region, embracing the Niagara escarp- 
ment and a part of the Erie plain, extending as far south as North 
Tonawanda, and east through Lockport, and even farther. 

The county is rather flat, aside from the ridge and its immediate 
vicinity. There is a slight, but rather general slope in the northern 




Fig. 30. — A Baldwin orchard on the Lake Road showing a good cover-crop of 

mammoth clover 

part toward the lake, and in the southern part toward Buffalo and 
the south. There are only a few hills and a minimum of swamp area, 
but considerable mountain territory composed of a very durable stratum 
of Niagara limestone. There are no important rivers, ponds or valleys 
in the county. Much of the land on plains and on the plateau is too 
flat to allow of good natural drainage. 

The Ontario plain is made up largely of Dunkirk soils, such as sand and 
clay loams. Such soils lend themselves easily to all methods of tillage, 
and here cultivation is the general practice. On the other hand, the moun- 
tain territory is. much of it, too rough and stony for thorough cultivation. 



* For fuller description see report of field oj)crations, Bureau of Soils, 1906. 



288 



Bulletin 262. 



The climate is much influenced by Lake Ontario. Cool and moist 
winds from the lake are modifying and unifying factors. Local and 
seasonal precipitations are probably much affected by proximity to the 
lake. The temperature is doubtless higher in winter and lower in sum- 
mer because of nearness to Ontario waters. Attention is drawn to this 
circumstance by the soil survey of the region, found in the Report of 
the Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils for igo6, page 75. 

Age of the orchards. — The accompanying table is interesting in show- 
ing the rise and decline of apple-orchard planting in the county. It is 
quite probable that a few orchards were planted previous to 1820, but 
no records could be obtained to support this idea. Very few orchards 
were set before 1855, and these were small ones for family rather than 
commercial purposes. Shortly after this date, however, large orchards 
were put out, and for a period of thirty-five years extensive plantings 
were made ; in fact 75.9 per cent of the orchards now of bearing age 
were set between 1855 and 1879. 

The most significant feature of this table, however, is the one that 
shows the decline in plantings. This decline began about twenty-five 
years ago, and has rapidly continued till the time of this survey. This 
fact can hardly be attributed to the San Jose scale, for this insect has not 
been prevalent, or at least not troublesome for much more than six 
years. This matter of decreased plantings should not be looked upon 
too lightly by the fruit grower of this section, for the tendency is such 
as to cause alarm, and the final effect will be serious. 

I. Different Periods of Planting 



DATE OF PLANTING. 



1820-29 (10 years) 
1830-39 (10 years) 
1840-49 (10 years) 
1850-54 (5 years). 

1855-59 

1860-64 

1865-69 

1870-74 

1875-79 

1880-84 

1885-89 

1890-94 

1895-99 

1900—04 



Number of 
orchards. 



8 
22 

30 

75 

100 

47 
114 

105 
36 

17 
12 



Number of 
acres. 



7 

49 

195* 

279 

688 

920 

467 

1 136 

,098 

3854 

157 

122 

38 
74 



Per cent 
orchards. 



1-4 

3-8 

5-2 

12.9 

17.2 

8.1 

19 .6 

18. 1 

6.2 

2.9 

2 . 1 

1-4 

I .0 



Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County. 



289 



Age and yield. — The period of maximum production seems to come 
between fifty and sixty-five years after planting. Some orchards or 
parts of orchards were seen, which were planted previous to 1830, but 
no accurate data could be given of the yields so they were not used 
in this computation. 



II. Age and Yield per Acre in Bushels for All Parts of the County 

Surveyed 



DATE OF 
PLANTING. 



1830-39 
1840-49 
1850-54 
1855-59 
1860-64 
1865-69 
1870-74 
1875-79 
1880-84 
1885-89 



Num- 
ber or- 
chards. 



Num- 
ber 
acres. 



40 
I I 
94 
297 
356 
267 
223 
105 



Aver- 
age 
yield. 



1 1 I 

98 

I 2 1 

2b I 

90 

97 

136 

162 

198 

150 



Num- 
ber or 
chards. 



Num- 
ber 
acres. 



49 

3 9 
78 
i,S7 
408 
458 
371 
414 
153 
18 



Aver- 
age 
yield. 



88 
107 
106 
109 
127 
122 
108 

71 
115 



Num- 
ber or- 
chards. 



Num- Aver- 

ber age 
acres, yield. 



14 
40 
76 
173 
456 
730 
597 
623 
123 



117 
213 
173 
106 
102 
162 
170 
ISO 
129 
160 



Age and Yield per Acre in Bushels for All Parts of the County Surveyed 



DATE OF PLANTING. 



830-39 
840-49 
850-54 
855-59 
860-64 
865-69 
870-74 
875-79 
880-84 
885-80 
890-94 



1906. 



Num- 
ber or- 
chards. 



Num- 
ber 
acres. 



Aver- 
age 
yield. 



Num- 
ber or 
chards. 



5 

72 

48 

2 10 

680 

814 

708 

878 

384 

I 7 

45 



i»o 
210 
138 
158 
109 
13^ 
130 

93 
164 
198 

91 



6 
31 
52 
76 
99 
96 
22 
3 
4 



Num- 
ber 
acres. 



92 

SI 

yo 

2 I 6 

640 

768 
330 
618 
300 

IS 
36 



Aver- 
age 
yield. 



60 
240 

75 
208 
202 
159 

98 
144 
123 

71 



Five-Year 
Average. 



Aver- 
age age. 



*69 
*59 

52 

47 

42 
37 
32 
27 



Aver- 
age 
yield. 



Ill 
17b 
123 
168 
124 
135 
131 
131 
137 
139 
(a) 8 2 



The comparatively high yield for the last two periods, namely, 1885- 
89 and 1890-94, is due to the fact that these orchards were mostly 
of the Oldenburg (Dutchess) variety, which is an early bearer. 



* Average age for a ten-year period. Each date of planting not known. 
(a) Two year average. 



290 



Bulletin 262. 



SOILS 

The following data are abstracted from the eighth Report of the 
Bureau of Soils, the survey which formed the basis of the report on the 
Niagara sheet having been conducted in conjunction with the orchard 
survey in 1906. 

There are seventeen soil types in Niagara County. Only five of these, 
however, have been used extensively for apple orchards, viz., Dunkirk 
loam, Dunkirk clay loam, Dunkirk silt loam, Clyde loam and Tona- 
wanda clay. 

THE SOIL TYPES 

Dunkirk loam. — This occupies more territory than any other one 
soil, and has been used most largely for orchard plantations. Consider- 




FiG. 31. — Partial Ullage with grass between the rows. Better than no cultivation, 
but not so good as thorough cultivation 

able areas in Middleport, Gasport, North Wilson, Newfane, and Youngs- 
town are of this sort. There is also a strip extending from Youngstown 
to Lewiston, and then eastward along the ridge from Lewiston to Lock- 
port. This type of soil is derived from glacial material, and carries 
some sandstone and shale. It is a dark brown loam, eight to ten 
inches deep. The subsoil is a light brown, fine sandy loam, which is 
compact, and becomes darker in color and heavier in texture with depth. 
Stones are scattered through both subsoil and surface soil. 

Dunkirk clay loam. — This ranks second in the area occupied. It is 
the most common type about Niagara Falls, Suspension Bridge, and 
toward Sanborn. This type is a stiff and heavy clay. It is dark 



Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County. 



291 



brown to grayish brown, and runs to a depth of eight inches. It is 
generally free of gravel and stones. The compact character of this 
soil, and the fact that it is frequently found on depressed areas, renders 
drainage on it very poor. 

Dunkirk silt loam. — This occurs along the lake from Youngstown 
eastward in interrupted areas. It is also common west of Gasport and 
Orangeport, and on toward Lockport. This type consists of a pale 
yellow to light brown silt loam. It is underlaid by a darker subsoil. 
It is sedimentary in origin, and represents the wash from higher shale 
slopes. 

Clyde loam. — This occurs in the quadrangle delimited by Hickory 
Corners, Wilson, Youngstown, and Lewiston. The largest single area 
within this district is south and southwest of Wilson. This type is 
derived from glacial lake deposits. It is somewhat variable in color 
and appearance. It varies from a friable loam to a dark gray, brown 
or black color. The depth ranges from eight to twelve inches. It is 
much subject to puddling and when wet is sticky and impervious. 
On well-drained areas, however, it is mellow and pervious to water. 

Tonazcaiida clay. — This is distributed uniformly from southern Ni- 
agara Falls to LaSalle, on toward North Tonawanda, and eastward 
toward Wheatfield. Tonawanda clay is much like Dunkirk clay loam. 
It is somewhat lighter in color, and is firmer in texture and consistency. 
It has a surface soil ranging in depth from five to twelve inches. It 
carries very few stones, and but little gravel. 

III. Relation of Yields to Soil Types 



KIND OF SOIL. 



Dunkirk loam 

Dunkirk clay loam. 
Dunkirk silt loam. 

Clyde loam 

Tonawanda clay. . . 



Dunkirk loam 

Dunkirk clay loam . 
Dunkirk silt loam. 

Clyde loam 

Tonawanda clay. . . 



Dunkirk loam 

Dunkirk clay oam. 
Dunkirk silt loam. , 

Clyde loam 

Tonawanda clay. . . 



Number 
of or- 
chards. 



Number 

of 

acres. 



770 
97 

107 

S4 

91 

1904 



Aver- 
age 
yield. 



167 
148 
139 
57 
113 



Number 
of or- 
chards. 



Number 

of 

acres. 



74 


789 


174 


83 


826 


2& 


279 


157 


33 


301 


25 


341 


145 


27 


360 


13 


179 


84 


18 


197 


^9 


260 


120 


33 


273 



30 

27 



793 
113 
119 
67 
108 

1905- 

82( 

30 
36< 
19' 
27; 
1906. 
833 
291 
360 
174 
273 



Aver- 
age 
yield. 



161 

157 

141 

73 

121 

160 
151 
141 

73 
113 

159 
13s 

135 
60 



292 



Bulletin 262. 



Yields on different soil types. — Table III shows that the Dunkirk 
soils give larger yields than the other types. It shows also that Clyde 
loam is considerably inferior to all others. It is probable that the Clyde 
loam yields are too low, but a smaller number of orchards and acres 
were used in this computation, so the averages are not so well substan- 
tiated. After all, the orchards on the Clyde loam were not neglected 
ones, so the figures are correct as far as they go. 

Selection of orchards. — In order to increase the value of this study of 
yields on different soil types, the orchards were selected with considerable 




Fig. 32. — After " thinning," by cutting out every other roiv diagonally through the 

orchard 



care. All scale-infested orchards were excluded and only those orchards 
were considered which had received, so far as could be told, nearly equal 
and uniform care. No neglected orchards were included. This sifting 
process reduces the acreage considerably, but seems to be the only fair 
method of procedure. 

DRAINAGE 

A study of the accompanying table on drainage shows that a little 
more than half (52.2 per cent ) of the orchards have good drainage; about 
one-fourth (26.3 per cent) have fair drainage; 10.5 per cent have poor, 
and I I.I per cent have locally bad drainage. Furthermore, it may be 
seen that there are more orchards and more acres with locally bad 



Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County, 



293 



drainage than with poor drainage. Now if it pays to have good drainage 
on the whole area of an orchard, it should pay equally well to drain 
any part that needs it. It is frequently these locally bad areas that 
determine the profit, for such sections receive as much care in tilling, 
spraying, and pruning but they give little or no return in crops. 

Another feature shown by the table is the small proportion of orchards 
which are given artificial drainage : and still another is the number of 
acres of trees killed or damaged through failure to provide good drain- 
age. It becomes clear, that little attention is given to soil drainage.* 

IV. Drainage 



DRAINAGE. 


Number of 
orchards. 


Number of 
acres. 


Per cent 
orchards. 


Character of drainage : 

Good 

Fair 

Poor 


302 

152 

61 

64 

579 

20 

2 

16 

13 
4 


2,839 

1,631 

536 

625 

5.431 

305 

22 

190 

107 
75 


52.2 
26 .3 

10 -5 
I I . I 


Locally bad 


Nature of drainage : 

Natural 


93-8 
• 3-2 


Tile drained 


Stone drained 


Surface ditched 


2 6 


Effect on the trees : 

Trees killed 




Trees badly damaged 









FERTILIZATION 

In recent years, the orchards in the county have been very sparingly 
fertilized. No figures were gathered regarding the use of fertilizers 
previous to 1900, but since that date about eighty in every one hundred 
orchards have been enriched in some way. But this estimate, though 
accurate, is almost misleading, for any orchard that has received any 
fertilizer whatsoever, and even in very small quantities and at very 
infrequent intervals, has been classed as an enriched orchard. Many 
farmers do not apply manure oftener than once in six years, and rather 
a large number plan to cover orchard land once in ten years. Yet 
variable as the custom is, it has been found that of 622 orchards surveyed 
484, or yy.^ per cent, have received some fertilizing material, and 138, or 
22.2 per cent, have never received any. 

Barnyard manure has been used most largely ; this is followed by 
green-manuring with cover-crops, while commercial fertilizers rank third 



*An instructive discussion of drainage is found in Rul. 254, Cornell University 
Exp. Station. 



294 



Bulletin 262. 



in general use. The need and value of fertilizers for orchards have 
been demonstrated beyond question in Wayne County, as well as in 
other sections of the country, and more attention might well be given 

to this factor of orchard 
management. 

Commercial fertilizers have 
not come into very general 
use in the county ; in fact, 
about 4.3 per cent of the area 
(acres) is enriched by com- 
mercial fertilizers alone and 
in combination with other 
fertilizers, A few orchard- 
ists use commercial fertilizer 
in connection with manures, 
some use ashes with manures, 
and 4 per cent (of orchards) 
use commercial fertilizers 
alone. Complete fertilizers 
are used in only thirteen or- 
chards and on 119 acres. Fre- 
quently the phosphorus is en- 
tirely omitted. 

Cover-crops have also been 
rather unpopular. They have 
been used on only about ten 
per cent of the orchards. Buckwheat, rye and clovers are the chief kinds 
used. Green-manuring by theaise of cover-crops might well come into 
more general use, and in this way serve as a substitute for barnyard 
manure and other fertilizers. 




Fig. 33. — A poor type of cultivator for orchard 
use. Both frame and handles " skin " many 
trees 



V. Summary of Fertilizers Used on Bearing Orchards 





Used Alone. 


Used With 
Other Fertilizers. 


Total. 


FERTILIZERS. 


Num- 
ber 
of or- 
chards. 


Num- 
ber 
of 
acres. 


Per 
cent 
or- 
chards. 


Num- 
ber 
of or- 
chards. 


Num- 
ber 
of 

acres. 


Per 
cent 
or- 
chards. 


Num- 
ber 
of or- 
chards. 


Num- 
ber 
of 
acres. 


Per 

cent 
or- 
chards. 




360 

25 

61 

9 
4 


3.702* 
258J 
528 

88i 
34 


78 

S 

13 

2 
.9 


19 
2 

4 


175 
10 

3oi 


— 


138 !l,4IS 


22 


Barnyard manure 

Commercial fertilizer . . . 
Green-manure (cover) . . 
Manure and commer- 
cial fertilizer 


379 
27 
61 

.13 
4 


3,877* 
268i 
528 

119 
34 


61 

4 

10 

2 
.6 



















Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County. 295 

VI. Kinds of Commercial Fertilizers 



FERTILIZERS. 



Number of 
orchards. 



Number of 
acres. 



Potash or ashes 

Phosphorus with potash or ashes. 
Complete fertiUzer. . . . , 



73 
106 
20^ 



Three-Year Average Income per Acre for all Fertilizers 



METHOD OF TREATMENT. 



No fertiUzation 

Barnyard manure. . . . 
Commercial fertilizers 

Straw mulch 

Cover-crop 




The following results were found for Wa) ne County (Hull. Xo. 226) 

Yield in Bushels for igo2 and 1903 for Fertilized and Unfertilized 
Orchards. Trees Set Before 1880 



TREATMENT. 


1908. 


i903,'^ 


Two- 
year 


Number 
orchards. 


Acres. 


Average 
yield. 


Number 
orchards. 


• 
Acres. 


Average 
yield. 


average 
yield. 




292 

1 1 1 


2,Il6j 

692 


233 

173 


147 
44 


i,2ioi 281 


257 













TILLAGE 

'Acreage of tilled and untillcd orchards. — Precisely one-third of the 
orchards had been tilled for a ten-year period previous to 1906; and 
fifteen per cent have been in sod for this period. Seventeen per cent, 
or a little less than one-fifth, had been tilled for five years, and about 
an equal number had been in sod for this period. 



296 



Bulletin 262. 
VII. Treatment Prior to 1906. Mature Orchards 



TREATMENT. 



Number of Number of 
orchards. acres. 




Per cent 
orchards. 



Tilled ten years or more 

Tilled five years or more 

Tilled over half of preceding five years 
Sod over half of preceding five years. . 

Sod five years or more 

Sod ten years or more 



1.343 


33- 


233 


lb. 


423 


7- 


643 


12 . 


613 


13- 


627 


15- 




Fig. 34. — The work of ike " skinning 
type of cultivator 



Methods of sod treatment. — Sod 
orchards not pastured have given 
much better results on the average 
than sod orchards handled in any 
other way, but in Niagara County 
there are special reasons for this. In 
tl:e first place, the unpastured sod or- 
chards receive better care. A sod or- 
chard that is not pastured does not 
mean a neglected orchard. A good 
many growers who have orchard land 
handled in this manner make it a 
point to prune well, spray well, and 
fertilize well ; and although they do 
not cultivate or pasture, yet they may 
get good crops. The much larger 
number of orchards and acres in sod 
and not pastured is an indication that 
some of the fruit producers have 
found out these things for themselves. 
Again, the unpastured sod orchards 
are generally younger than pastured 
ones. 

On the other hand, sod orchards 
which are pastured with cattle, sheep, 
or even with hogs, are more likely 
to be neglected. There are two rea- 
sons for this. One is the presence of 
scale, and the other is the tendency 
to pasture the orchards which have 
passed beyond the period of largest 
crops. 

With respect to the method of 
pasturing, hogs have given better re- 



Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County, 



297 



suits than any of the other animals. Sheep rank second, while cows or 
horses give the poorest results of any. These latter results correspond 
with those obtained in Orleans and Wayne counties, and tend to sup- 
port the rapidly-developing principle that if one must pasture he should 
use hogs rather than any other animals. 



VIII. Yield in Bushkls with Various Methods of Sod Treatment 



METHOD 
OF IREATMENT 


1904. 




1905- 




1906. 


Num- 
ber or- 
chards. 


Num- 
ber 
acres. 


Aver- 
age 
yield. 


Num- 
ber or- 
chards. 


Num- 
ber 
acres. 


Aver- 
age 
yield. 


Num- 
bei or- 
chards. 


Num- 
ber 
acres. 


Aver- 
age 
yield. 


Pastured with hogs 

Pastured with sheep. . . . 
Pastured with cattle. . . . 


20 

24 

26 

13s 

2 


166 
298 
38s 

T,382 

18 


144 

137 

87 

179 

90 


23 

24 

34 

185 

I 


203 

321 

428 

1,745 

25 


130 
113 

74 
123 

120 


26 

20 

3 3 

189 

I 


210 

250 

390 

1,817 

5 


141 

139 

90 

125 


Pastured and plowed on 
alternate years. . . . 


90 



Three-Year Average per Acre: 

Pastured with hogs 138.3 bushels 

Pastured with sheep 120.6 bushels 

Pastured with cattle 83 . 6 bushels 

Not pastured 142.3 bushels 

A computation for Orleans County gave the following results : 

Three-Year Average Per Acre:* 

Pastured with hogs 312 bushels 

Pastured with sheep 308 bushels 

Pastured with cattle i S3 bushels 

Not pastured 217 bushels 

Treatment in 1905 of mature orchards. — In 1905 the mature orchards 
were variously treated. A classification of treatment places the methods 
under ten different headings (see Table IX). By far the largest number 
of orchards, aljout 44 per cent, were tilled without cover-crops. The 
next largest number or group, including 131 orchards of 1,167 acres, 
which is 24.5 per cent, was in sod with the grass cut and left under the 
trees. A few orchards were given cover-crops, and a small number 
were used for hoed crops. 

The last group, receiving miscellaneous treatment, is made up of those 
in which cultivation was given only to parts of the orchard, or in which 
some pasturing and plowing, but without regular tillage, was the practice. 

* The three years are not the same in both cases, which undoubtedly accounts 
in large measure for the difference in yields. 



298 



Bulletin 262. 



IX. Treatment in 1905 of Mature Orchards 



TREATMENT. 



Number 


Number 


Per cent 


orchards. 


acres. 


orchards. 


34 


339* 


6.4 


235 


2,189 


44 


9 


116 


1-7 


26 


279 


4-9 


4 


39 


.8 


32 


308 


6.0 


31 


339* 


5-8 


131 


1 , 167 


24.5 


32 


268 


6.0 


28 


449i 


(a) 


278 


2,644^ 


49 


256 


2 .400^ 


47-7 



Tilled with cover-crop 

Tilled without cover-crop. . . 

Tilled with hoed crops 

Sod, sheep pasture 

Sod, sheep and hog pasture. 

Sod, hog pasture 

Sod, cattle pasture 

Sod, grass cut and left 

Sod, not included in above . 
Miscellaneous 



Total tilled. 
Total Sod . 



(o) Not included in percentage determinations. 



X. Treatment in 1905 of Young 


Trees. (Set Since 1895) 


TREATMENT. 


Number 
orchards. 


Number 
acres. 


Per cent 
orchards. 


Tilled, planted to a cultivated crop 


8 
2 
I 


98 
6 


72.7 
18 2 


Tilled, sowed to grain crop 


Sod, hav cut 


9.1 





• Soil methods li'ith young orclianh in 1905. — Most of the young 
orchards in 1905 were given proper soil treatment; '/2.y per cent were 
planted with hoed or cultivated crops, 18.2 per cent were sown to grain 
and only 9.1 per cent were left in sod and handled as a hay field. 

Average returns in relation to soil treatment. — A careful study of 
yields and prices was made to determine what relation exists between soil 
treatment and profits. The product of these computations in terms of 
averages is given in the accoinpanying table. These tabulations cover 
a period of ten years or more, and extend over the entire county, and 
therefore furnish a fairly accurate index to the economic status of this 
factor of orchard management. If the reader consults a table of these 
averages for any individual year, he may find some inexplicable figures ; 
but these should be viewed as arising out of peculiar environmental 
conditions. However, we are concerned more with the general rule, 
and thus find the most reliable information comes from a study of 
the five-year averages. 

The table of five-year averages shows that a long-term tillage, say 
ten or more years, gives not only the largest yield, but also the largest 
income. A long-term tillage is far superior to a long term of sod treat- 
ment. This table shows also that a five- or even three-year tillage 



Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County. 



299 



is much better than the same period with sod treatment. The conclu- 
sion of the whole matter is this : certain sod orchards under special 
conditions, such as heavy manure mulching, together with some pastur- 
ing to keep the grass down, give good results, — perhaps as good as 
clean cultivation. But the skillful fruit grower can expect more than 
the law of averages will give. And even the general grower should note 
that thorough tillage is the most profitable method of soil management. 



XI. Average Yield in Bushels and Average Income per Acre of Sod and 

Tilled Orchards 



METHOD OF TREATMENT. 



Number 


Number 


Average 


Average 


orchards. 


acres. 


yield. 


income. 


57 


645 


186 


S134 


■ 22 


185 


139 


88 


10 


88 


165 


104 


8 


93 


157 


^8 


4 


44 


145 


83 


14 


144 


181 


105 




1903. 




100 


1 ,040 


408 


$148 


40 


405 


326 


117 


27 


368 


214 


141 


18 


353 


278 


82 


18 


2Q2 


280 


127 


31 


281 
19 


264 

34. 


103 


117 


I , 203 


282 


$126 


55 


573 


224 


125 


44 


239 


230 


131 


53 


767 


174 


87 


20 


566 


171 


83 


38 


338 


160 


84 




19 


35- 




28 


406 


258 


$71 


20 


179 


312 


91 


18 


182 


300 


49 


48 


577 


271 


53 


35 


450 


218 


37 


13 


146 


192 


35 




19 


36. 




34 


342 


261 


$121 


22 


309 


270 


80 


16 


240 


285 


60 


38 


434 


165 


57 


37 


338 


170 


51 


29 


332 


165 


48 



Tilled ten years or more . . 
Tilled five years or more. 
Tilled at least three years 
Sod at least three years . . 
Sod five years or more. . . 
Sod ten years or more. . . 

Tilled ten years or more . 
Tilled five years or more. 
Tilled at least three years 
Sod at least three years. . 
Sod five years or more. . . 
Sod ten years or more. . . 

Tilled ten years or more . 
Tilled five years or more. 
Tilled at least three years 
Sod at least three years. . 
Sod five years or more. . . 
Sod ten years or more . . . , 

Tilled ten years or more . . 
Tilled five years or more. , 
Tilled at least three years 
Sod at least three years. . 
Sod five years or more. . . 
Sod ten years or more. , . , 

Tilled ten years or more . , 
Tilled five years or more. 
Tilled at least three years 
Sod at least three years . . 
Sod five years or more . . . 
Sod ten years or more. . . . 



30O 



Bulletin 262. 
FiTE-YEAR Average per Acre 



METHOD OF TREATMENT. 



Income. 



Tilled ten years or inore . . 
Tilled five years or inore. 
Tilled at least three years 
Sod at least three years . . 
Sod five years or more . . . 
Sod ten vears or :nore . . . , 




The results for Orleans County ( Ikill. Xo. 229) furnish an interesting 
comparison (four of the calendar years are the same in the two cases) : 

Average Yield in Bushels and Income per Acre of Tilled and Sod 
Orchards. All Orchards 
Five-year Average per Acre 



METHOD OF TREATMENT. 




Income. 



Tilled ten years or more 

Tilled five years or inore 

Tilled over half of preceding five years 
Sod over half of preceding five years . . 

Sod five years or more 

Sod ten years or more 



$182 
138 

113 

107 

108 

87 



Average Yield in Bushels and Income per Acre of Tilled and Sod 

Orchards. Orchards All Well Cared For 

Five-year Average per Acre 



METHOD OF TREATMENT. 



Tilled ten years or more 

Tilled five years or more 

Tilled over half of preceding five years 
Sod over half of preceding five years . . 

Sod five years or more 

Sod ten years or more 



Bushels. 



Income 



337 


$189 


296 


148 


234 


121 


242 


118 


258 


134 


232 


117 



ENEMIES OF THE APPLE 
The codling moth and the San Jose scale have been and are still 
the worst enemies of the apple in Niagara County. The codling moth 
is an ever-present pest in every orchard of much size in the county. 



Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County. 



301 



but its ravages have been much reduced and fairly well controlled 
where careful sprayings have been given. 

The San Jose scale, although not so widely spread as the codling moth 
or some other insects, has been far more destructive than all other 
pests combined. In fact, the loss of fruit and the destruction of trees 
have been so great as to threaten the eradication of the whole apple 
industry in the western part of the county. This alarming outlook- 
is due more to a combination of unfavorable conditions than to the 
character of the scale or the inefificiency of spray mixtures. For the 




Fig. 35. — .4 good equipment jor inaking lime and sulfur. The engine pumps water 
from a pool at left, and the boiler furnishes steam for cooking the mixture 

past three years, the special difficulties have been of three kinds, and 
these are associated with climate, the management of the trees, and 
the attitude of the fruit growers. Each of these may be briefly treated. 

Many growers have been bothered to find suitable weather for spray- 
ing. In spring, when most of the spraying for scale has been done, 
there were frequent rains, strong winds, or wind in the wrong direction ; 
or in some instances, a combination of all three. In consequence of 
these obstacles a few orchards were not sprayed at all, while some others 
were only partially sprayed, and in still other cases an ineffective spray- 
ing was all that could be accomplished. 

In the second category of difficulties comes an improper manage- 
ment of the trees. Rv this is meant a failure to keep the trees within 



302 Bulletin 262. 

manageable limits. A great many of the orchards contain trees that 
are too large and high to make spraying feasible. In other cases the 
tops are too bushy and full of branches. Effective spraying can never 
be done unless thorough pruning is annually practiced. Beyond a 
doubt, insufficient pruning has been a leading cause of failures. 

The final, and perhaps most important difficulty, is the attitude 
of the fruit growers themselves. Because some have failed in their 
fight against the scale, many believe it is useless to try. The chief 
difficulty, which is really fundamental, lies in the fact that a majority 
of the orchardists failed to recognize the scale when it entered their 
orchards, or neglected to fi^ht it till the insect became well established. 




Fig. 36. — Excessive pruning of scale-infested trees. Note renewal of tops now free 
of scale. In orchard of Willard Hopkins, Y oungstown 

Just how the scale made its advent into the county is not known. 
Some assert that it was brought by birds from Canadian orchards, and 
others affirm that it was introduced on nursery stock shipped in from 
the South Atlantic states. Mr. T. Greiner, of La Salle, says that he 
had scale as early as 1899; and in Youngstown and Lewiston the insect 
has been familiar for at least six years. In their efforts to control the 
pest, some of the more progressive orchardists have tried all the recom- 
mended insecticides and caustics, such as lime and sulphur, crude oil, 
Scalecide, and kerosene emulsion. A few of the growers have given 
more attention to pruning than to spraying. A thinning-out of the 
tree top, and a reduction of the shoot system, followed by careful spray- 
ing, has proved the best method of control. Excessive pruning, amount- 
ing to a removal of nearly the entire tree top and leaving only a few 
main branches three to four feet in length, has been tried in Willard 
Hopkins' orchard. See Fig. 36. 



Applf. Orchard Survey of Niagara County. 303 

A few other interesting observations were made in this connection 
during the summer of 1907, and may be recorded here as worthy of some 
attention : 

Some varieties suffer more than others from the scale. Greenings 
and Baldwins appear to be most subject to scale, while Russets, Tolman, 
Oldenburg (Duchess), and Ben Davis suffer much less. This may be 
due to a difference in the character of the bark. 

Trees in the central part of an orchard suffer more than those near 
the outside, due perhaps to the better winter protection to the scale. 
Trees in the centre of an orchard are a little less exposed to cold and 
drying winds and other adversities of the winter season. 

Trees in a tilled orchard are injured more than those in a sod orchard; 
the more rapid growth and softer tissue in the tilled orchard may be 
advantageous to the scale. 

Early-maturing varieties usually carry a smaller number of scales on 
the fruit. 

Scale is always much worse where the pruning is insufficient. 

Low heads and open top retard the spread of the scale on individual 
trees.* 

The apple scab, which has been so troublesome in apple districts 
generally, and especially in Wayne and Orleans counties, has not 
been serious the last few years in Niagara County. The scarcity of 
this fungus, and the consequent small loss from it, are probably due 
to the exceedingly dry weather in the summers of 1906 and 1907. 

The collar rot, observed in many orchards in Wayne and Orleans coun- 
ties, is not of infrequent occurrence in Niagara. Observations of the 
distribution of this disease tend to confirm earlier studies, namely, 
that it is confined largely to poorly drained land. It is important, 
however, to note that the rot in Niagara County is more frequent on 
Baldwins and Greenings than was formerly supposed. And this suggests 
that this disease is oftener associated with poorly drained soil than with 
particular varieties of apples. 



* The San Josd scale has long been studied at the New York Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station at Geneva, and those interested should address that Station for 
bulletins on this subject. 



304 Bulletin 262. 

XII. Principal Enemies of the Apple in 1905, 1906 and 1907 



San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus) 

Codling moth (Carpocapsa pomonella) 

Apple scab on leaves {Venlnria inacqualis) .. . 
Apple scab on fruit (Ventitria inacqualis) . . . . 

Black aphis on foliage (Aphis pomi) 

Cigar case bearer (Coleophora fletcherella) . . . . 
Oyster shell bark louse (Myiilaspis porno 

rum) 

Tussock moth {Orgyia leucostigma) 

Fall web worm ( Hyphantria cunea) 

Cankerworm {Paleacrita vernata) 

Collar rot 

Canker (Sphaeropsis malorum) 

Leaf blight {Bacillus amylovorus) 



Slight. 



34 
82 
207 
40 
13 
19 



Con- 
sider- 
able. 



26b 

104 

28 



Se- 
rious. 



Number Acf 




Con- 


Slight. 


sider- 




able. 


48s 


289 


936 


2,086 


I. 317, 


919 


5294 


287i 


173 


180 


182 


258 


249* 


549 


181 


356 


526 


528 


136 


151 


475 


643 


553 


61S 


116 


86 



Se- 
rious. 



628 
648 
l65i 

99i 

10 
194 

243^ 

39 
34 
19 

350 
54 



An additional list of enemies of lesser importance, and not especially 
troublesome except in unsprayed orchards, is here appended : woolly 
aphis, tent caterpillar, red spider, leaf roller, leaf miner, plum scale 
(Lecanium sp.), bud moth, leaf hopper, curculio, borer, cottony scale, 
blister mite. 

SPRAYING 

Methods of spraying. — About four-fifths of the orchards are generally 
sprayed. Nineteen per cent were seldom or never sprayed, while 6.8^ 
which were annually sprayed in the past were not sprayed in 1905. 
Approximately the same percentages hold with respect to acres. If one 
were to exclude the scale-infested area, a different showing would be 
made ; for of those who do spray, more applications of some kind are 
given since an extra one is added for scale. But on the other hand, a 
number of otherwise good orchards are given up to the scale. 

The records show that ten different kinds or combinations of spray 
mixtures have been used. Experimental solutions for the scale have 
increased this number by one-half. Several of these have been tried, 
however, in only a few orchards. Paris green and Bordeaux mixture 
ranks first, and second to this are prepared mixtures. Paris green 
has seldom been used alone. 



Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County. 



305 



XIII. Spraying in 1905 



HOW SPRAYED. 



Seldom or never sprayed 

Usually sprayed, but not in 1905 

Sprayed once 

Sprayed twice 

Sprayed three times 

Sprayed four times 

Sprayed five times 

Total unsprayed 

Total sprayed 



Number 


Number 


Per cent 


orchards. 


acres. 


orchards. 


98 


864 


19. I 


35 


409 


6.8 


104 


1,105 


20.3 


203 


2,156 


39-6 


68 


675 


13-3 


4 


49 


0.8 


I 


7 


. 2 


133 


1,273 


25-9 


380 


3,092 


74.1 



XIV. Kinds of Sprays used in 1905 



TREATMENT. 



Paris green and Bordeaux mixture. . . 

Arsenic and Bordeaux mixture 

Bordeaux mixture only 

Prepared mixtures 

Bo^-deaux mixture and lime and sulfur 

Lime and sulfur alone 

Scalecide 

Crude oil 

Kerosene emulsion 

Paris green only 



Number 
orchards. 


Number 
acres. 


Per cent 
orchards. 


22 I 


2,230 


57-3 


3 
16 


23 
166 


0.8 

4-1 


lor 


974 


26. 2 


19 


197 


4-9 


10 


99 


2.6 


2 


19 


0.5 


10 


200 


2.6 


2 


16 


0-5 


2 


ID 


0-5 



Hozi' spraying affects yields and incomes. — The best answer to this 
question may be obtained by referring to the tables on this subject. 
Two computations were made on this point, one inchiding all orchards 
within the survey and the other only well-cared-for orchards. The 
first table shows that the greatest yield follows from three sprayings, 
although there was a small gain in average income in favor of four 
sprayings. It is interesting as well as instructive to note the rising 
scale of average incomes in passing from the unsprayed group to that 
of four sprayings. This scale holds good for both tables. 

XV. Spraying and Yield and Income per Acre, 1905. All Orchards 

Included 



HOW SPRAYED. 



Unsprayed 

Sprayed once 

Sprayed twice 

Sprayed three times 
Sprayed four times . 



Number 
orchards. 



99 

74 

162 

63 
5 



Number 
acres. 



1,071 

737 

1,778 

^26 

>6 



Average 
yield. 



261 
364 
509 

577 
390 



Average 
income. 



93 

lOI 

171 
183 



3o6 



Bulletin 262. 



XVI. Spraying and Yield and Income per Acre, 1905. Orchards All 

Well Cared For 



HOW SPRAYED. 



Number Number 
orchards, acres. 



Average 
yield. 



Number 
orchards.* 



Number 
acres.* 



Average 
income. 



Unsprayed 

Sprayed once 

Sprayed twice 

Sprayed three times 
Sprayed four times . 



720 
368 
753 
42s 
43 



266 
353 

422 
440 
28s 



810 

j88 

758 

425 

43 



S9S 
146 
147 
201 
226 



* The computations for average income were based on a larger number of orchards than were 
those for average yield, hence the repetition of these headings. 

It is interesting in this connection to note the results as computed for 
Orleans County (Bull. No. 229), hence tables and comments are printed 
herewith : 

'• Relation of spraying to yields and prices. — The first table below 
shows that the sprayed orchards give a much higher yield and income 
per acre than the unsprayed. The difference in income is due to the 
larger yield, larger percentage of the crop barreled and higher price per 
barrel. It will be seen that those sprayed three times gave 31 per cent 
larger yield and 51 per cent larger income than those not sprayed. 

Spraying and Yield and Income per Acre, Orleans Co., 1904 



HOW SPRAYED. 



Yields. 



Number 
orchards. 



Number 



Average 
yield. 



Per 

cent 
of crop 
bar- 
reled. 



Incomes. 



Number 
orchards. 



Number 
acres. 



Average 
income. 



Unsprayed 

Sprayed once 

Sprayed twice 

Sprayed three times 
Sprayed four times. 



100 

49 

90 

40 

6 



9i7i 
504 
92ii 
.426 
43 



245 
307 
343 
322 
569 



86ii 
468 
864i 
406 
43 



$92 
116 
1^7 
139 
211 



Spraying and Yield and Income per Acre, Orleans Co., 1904. Orchards 

All Well Cared For 



HOW SPRAYED. 



Yields. 



Number 
orchards. 



Number 
acres. 



Average 
yield. 



Per 
cent 
of crop 
bar- 
reled. 



Incomes. 



Numbei 
orchards. 



Number 
acres. 



Average 
income. 



Unsprayed 

Sprayed once 

Sprayed twice 

Sprayed three times 
Sprayed four times. 



43 
33 

70 
27 

6 



381 
352 
701 
2i,7i 
43 



328 
346 
3 74 
414 
569 



4491 
316 
61I4 
236J 
43 



$103 
139 
143 
184 



Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County. 



307 



"A part of the difference in yield and income is due to other factors. 
The unsprayed orchards are Hkely to be somewhat neglected in other 
respects. To eliminate this factor, another classification was made after 
all neglected orchards were thrown out. 

" The second table includes only those orchards that are fairly well 
cared for. They are not badly diseased or damaged from any cause. 
This shows a marked difference in the percentage of the crop barreled 
and in average yield and income, the average income per acre being: 
unsprayed, $103; sprayed once, $139; sprayed twice, $143; sprayed 
three times, $184. Allowing for the cost of the extra barrels required, 
for the cost of spraying and for a possible difference due to other causes 
than spraying, there is certainly enough dift"erence left to give a large 
profit from the practice." 

Spraying for the scab. — Spraying influences in a very material way the 
character of the crop and the amount of income. As the writer has pre- 
viously noted, the summers of 1906 and 1907 were so dry that very little 
scab developed, and for this reason no computation in Niagara County 
was made to show the relation of scab to income. In view of this fact 
it seems well to publish the table formulated for Orleans County. It 
will be seen from this table that the greatest income comes where there 
is little scab. For example, associate 0-5 per cent scab with an 
average income per acre of $143. and contrast this with 76-100 per 
cent scab with an average income per acre of $88. 

XVII. Relation of Scab to Income and Yields, Orleans Co., 1904 



PER CENT OF SCAB. 



Average yield 

per acre — 

bushels. 



Average 

income per 

acre. 



Per cent 

of the crop 

barreled. 



o- 5 

6- 25 
26- 50 

51- 75 
76—100 



382 
319 
325 
284 
248 



$143 
102 

105 
87 



75 
72 
68 
70 



To control the scab, spray with Bordeaux mixture 3-3-50 at the periods 
indicated on page 309 for codling moth. 

Spraying for scale. — Spraying for San Jose scale has not been very 
generally practiced, and because of this fact the insect is gaining ground 
every year. The infested area extends from La Salle to Niagara Falls, 
through Lewiston and Youngstown to Wilson, and include? a few 
orchards in Olcott and Lockport. In this area over seventy-five per 



3o8 



Bulletin 262. 



cent of the orchards are more or less infested. The records show that 
within these bounds only forty-three orchards have been sprayed with 
sokitions to kill the scale. Lime and sulfur has been used more than 
any other spray, although Scalecide and crude oil have been tried with 
some degree of success in about one-third of the orchards. Observa- 
tions, however, tend to show that lime and sulfur should be adopted 




Fig. 37. — Lime and sidjiir, an effective spray for San Jose scale. Left side of tree 
sprayed, right side itnsprayed. In orchard of Ermon Shippey, Youngstoivn 

as the standard spray for scale. The formula for lime and sulfur now 
recommended for use is : 

Lime 20 pounds 

Sulfur (flour or flowers) 15 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

The preparation of this mixture involves careful attention to several 
particulars. The essentials briefly stated are as follows : Take the 
total quantity of sulfur to be used and make a thick paste with water. 
Heat in a cooking receptacle about one-third of the quantity of water 
required. When this water is hot, add all the lime and all the sulfur 



Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County. 3^9 

paste. Stir the solution while it is cooking. When the lime has slaked, 
add another third of hot water. Boil for fifty minutes, then strain 
the wash into the spray tank, and finally add the last third of water. 
The last addition of water may be hot or cold, preferably hot. 

The kind of apparatus employed in cooking is immaterial, but it 
should be suitable, convenient and economical. The time of application 
of this spray is important. Lime and sulfur washes may be applied in 
the fall as soon as the trees have become dormant, and after the leaves 
have fallen. Experiments in different parts of the country indicate, 
however, that the best results follow application in spring just before the 
growth of the tree begins. It is a fungicide as well as an insect-killer. 
More recent experience has demonstrated that lime-sulfur in self -boiled 
form and in the manufactured proprietory mixture may be used satis- 
factorily as a summer spray when properly diluted. In the case of the 
concentrated manufactured mixture it should test 2- degrees by the 
Beaume hydrometer and then be diluted by adding 30 parts of water to 
I part of concentrate. 

Controlling codling moth. — A study of Table XI shows that the cod- 
ling moth was found to be causing slight injury in 82 orchards com- 
prising 936 acres, considerable injury in 266 orchards covering 2,086 
acres, and serious injury in y2 orchards embracing 648 acres. This 
means that this insect is far too numerous and injurious for successful 
fruit-growing. The approved methods of controlling the codling moth 
may be classed under five headings. 

I. Spraying. Observations throughout the county tend to show that 
more attention must be given to the time and manner of spraying. 
Two sprayings when properly done are sufficient for the codling moth. 

(a) Immediately after the blossoms fall. 

(b) Eight to twelve days after the second spraying. 

The first application is very important. If the insecticide is thoroughly 
driven into the calyx cup at this time greater destruction of the larvae 
is insured. 

Some fruit growers have followed these directions explicitly, and 
yet suffer from this pest. This leads naturally to the second feature 
of spraying, namely, the manner of application. It is a well-established 
fact that nearly three-fourths of the codling worms enter the apple 
through the calyx. It is therefore of utmost importance that the calyx 
cavity be well filled with poison so that the first meal of the young 
worm shall be his last. In order to fill the calyx cavity, the spray should 
be applied from four sides of each tree. This may be done by placing the 
spray wagon in the open space between four trees and turning the hose 



3IO 



Bulletin 262. 



toward each of the four trees. This will insure the thorough spraying of 
every branch from the proper direction. Use a nozzle which delivers a 
rather coarse spray of great penetration, and attach it to the extension rod 
with a brass elbow. Maintain a pressure of 125 to 150 lbs. if possible. 
2. Some birds are useful in combating codling moth. Woodpeckers 
and nuthatches are specially helpful, and their presence should be 
encouraged. In winter these birds pick the larvae, which is the winter 
form of codling moth, from the bark of trees, and thus destroy many 

of these insects. 

3. Thorough scraping of the 
bark of trees will expose many 
wintering larvae, and aid in 
their control. 

4. Gather and destroy all 
windfalls and worm 3' fruit. 
Sheep or hogs can do much of 
this work. 

5. Use burlap bands on the 
tree trunks. Kill all insects 
under them every ten days from 
July 1st to August 1st, and once 
again later before winter. 

PRUNING 
The following table shows the 
facts with respect to pruning. 
In 66.7^^ of the orchards com- 
pared as to character of work, 
the pruning is good or fair, in 
25.3^ it is poor or carelessly 
done, and in 8^ no pruning is 
done. 

With respect to the frequency 
of pruning, it may be seen that 
over one-half, or 54.6;;^ of the orchards compared as to this factor, are 
pruned every year ; 22.6,^ are pruned on alternate years, y.y^ are pruned 
every third year, and 15.1^ are not pruned at any regular interval. 

A third classification of results shows that in 65.9^ of the orchards 
thus compared, the tops are left too dense; in 34.2;^ the tops are too 
high. 




Fig. 38. — Trees banded with burlap to catch 
the codling moth as it climbs the trunk 
in late summer to form cocoons for winter 



Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County. 



311 



Some of the essential points in pruning were given in Bulletin 226. 
The first four here given are transcribed from that publication. 

1. The branches should be cut close to the main limb. 

2. Large limbs should not be removed unless necessary. 

3. Paint should be used on all large wounds, and renewed yearly until 
the wounds are healed. 

4. Pruning should be done every year rather than give an occasional 
thorough trimming. 

5. Thinning out the tops should be practiced regularly. 

6. Do not continually prune off the lowest branches. 



XVIII. Data on Pruning 



CHARACTER OF "WORK. 



Number 
orchards. 



Number 



Per cent 
orchards. 



Character of work : 

Good 

Fair 

Poor or neglected 

None 

Frequency of pruning: 

Every year 

Every other year 

Every third year 

Infrequently 

Other features of pruning: 

Tops too dense , 

Tops too high , 



156 

184 

129 

41 



256 

106 

36 

71 



54 
28 



i>57o 

1,772 

1,299 

483 



2 , 766 

1,230 

386 

875 



468 
279 



30 . 6 
36.1 

25-3 
8.0 



54.6 

22.6 

7-7 

I5-I 

65-9 
34-2 



NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE 
There has been great variation in the number of trees planted to 
the acre. A few orchardists have planted as close as 22 x 22 feet, some 
have put the trees as far apart as 50 x 50, but a majority have planted 
at 36 X 36 or 40 X 40. The favorite distance has been t^6 x 36. This 
means 33.6 trees to the acre, a number which is far too many to fit in 
with the best methods of modern orchard management. A glance .at 
Table XIX shows that 47.9^ of the area has been planted at 36 x 36 to 
40 x 40 feet apart. In young orchards set since 1890, more attention 
has been given to placing the trees at proper distances. None of the 
newer orchards contained trees nearer than 31 x 31, while the largest 
numbers were set at 35 x 35 or 36 x 36. It would be much better 
if all the trees were set 40 to 45 feet apart. 



512 



Bulletin 262. 



The distance between trees affects in an important way the thor- 
oughness of spraying and the character of the fruit. When trees are 
close together, it is often difficult to spray from all sides, and frequently 
impossible from the most important side of the tree. Great losses 
from the effects of scale and codling moth have been sustained because 
of crowded trees. More room between trees will facilitate spraying and 
tend to insure better quality of fruit. 

XIX. Distance Between Trees 



DISTANCE APART. 



Trees Set Before 1890. 



Number 
orchards. 



Number 
acres. 



Percent 
acres. 



Trees Set Since 1890. 



Number 
orchards. 



Number 
acres. 



Percent 
acres. 



Not over 25 x 25 f t . 
26 X 26 to 30 X 30 ft 
31x31 to 35x35 ft 
36 X 36 to 40 X 40 ft 
41 X 41 to 50 -x 50 ft 

so X 60 ft 

66 X 33 ft 



17 
122 
135 
221 

I 2 



171 

I , 041 i 

1,151* 

2,377J 

144 

28 

52 



56. 2 

7.4 

364 



Trees set 
before 1890. 



Trees set 
since 1890. 



Average number of trees per acre . 
Average distance apart ......... 



38.2 

h ■ 8 



36 -4 
34-6 



RENTED ORCHARDS 

Only thirteen and three-tenths per cent of the orchards are rented. Of 
this number almost one-half, or forty-six and two-tenths per cent, are 
rented for five years or more. The average period of tenure is four 
years. This investigation of rented orchards, and the period of rental, 
gives a much better showing than was made from computations in Wayne 
or Orleans County, and represents a condition which is very much as it 
should be. 



XX. Orchards Rented and Orchards Worked by Owner 



TENURE. 


Number 
orchards. 


Number 
acres. 


Per cent 
orchards. 


Rented 


78 
507 


673 
5.360 


13-3 
86.7 


Worked by owner 



Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County. 
XXI. Years of Tenure 



313 



YEARS OF TENURE. 



Number 
orchards. 



Number 
acres. 



P r cent 
orchards. 



One year 

Two years 

Three and four years 
Five or more years . . 



15 
14 

36 



106 
174 
222 
171 



19 . 2 
18.0 
16 . 7 
46 . 2 



YIELDS. PRICES AND MARKETS, AND INCOME 

Yields. — Four tables are presented herewith which give the essen- 
tials with respect to yields. The table on yields for the entire county 
is only approximate, as is that on average yields per tree. All yields 
are much reduced because of the scale in the western part of the county. 

XXII. Approximate Total Yield in Bushels for Entire County 

1889 (U. S. Census Report) 623 , 204 

1899 (U. S. Census Report) 1,421, 796 

1902 3 ,445,000 

1903 4, 622, 200 

ig04 4, 428, 600 

1905 3.751.000 

1906 4, 124,000 

The estimates for the last five years are only approximate. 
XXIII. Average Yield per Acre in Bushels 



YEAR. 



1902 
1903 
1904 

1905 
1906 



Number 
orchards. 



125 
273 
459 
372 
173 



Number 
acres. 



I. 41 5 
2.736 
4,321 
4, 152 
2,031 



Average 
yield. 



236 
197 
195 
155 
179 



The average yield for the five-year period is 192.4 bushels, which is 
29 bushels less than v^^as found for Orleans County, and 34 more than 
was found for Wayne County. 



314 



Bulletin 262. 



XXIV. Average Yield per Tree 

1902 6.2 bushels 

i9°3 5.2 bushels 

1904 5.1 bushels 

1905 4.1 bushels 

i9°6 4.7 bushels 

Average 5.0 bushels 

These results were obtained by dividing the average yields per acre 
(Table XXII) by the average number of trees per acre, which is 38.2. 
This average yield per tree is two-tenths of a bushel more than was 
found for Orleans County, and is one and four-tenths more than in 
Wayne. 

XXV. Classification of Yields 



YIELD PER ACRE 
IN BUSHELS. 



Num- 
ber or- 
chards. 



Num- 
ber 
acres. 



o-ioo. 
101-200. 
201-300. 
301-400. 
401.-500. 
Soi-600. , 
601-700. 
701-800. 
801-900. 
901-1000 



- I 



330 
443 



Per 

cent or- 
chards 



3S-2 
39-6 



Num- 
ber or- 
chards. 



32 
288 

25 

19 

3 

2 
I 



Num- 
ber 
acres. 



389 
695 
326 
163 
29 



Per 

cent or- 
chards. 



Num- 
ber or- 
chards. 



Num- 
ber 
acres. 



899 
I, 132 
28s 
152 
104 
83 



Per 
cent or- 
chards. 



Classification of Yields 



YIELD PER ACRE 
IN BUSHELS. 



Number 
orchards. 



Number 
acres. 



Per cent 
orchards. 



1906. 



Number 
orchards. 



Number 
acres. 



Per cent 
orchards. 



Five-year 
average 
per cent 
orchards. 



o-ioo 
101-200 
201-300 
301-400 
401-500 
501-600 
601—700 
701-800 



2 , 416 

1,412 

208 

T74 

20 

160 



S3 
37 

4-5 

3 



200 

J38 

58 

16 

6 



• S 



2,348 

I .694 

SS8 

120 

74 

28 

82 



45.5 

31 .4 

13 .2 

3.6 



3S.2 

45-4 

9 

6.6 
2 
• S 
.6 



Apple Orchard Survey or Niagara County. 



315 



Prices and markets. — The table given below shows the average prices 
for the crops as they were marketed for the different years. The averages 
for 1905 and igo5 were based on a smaller number of computations 
than for any of the other years ; still they are representative for 
the county for those years. 

XXVI. Average Price Paid to Grower 



HOW MARKETED. 



Price per barrel 

Price per bushel sold in bulk. . . 
Price per 100 pounds sold to dry 
Price per 100 pounds for cider. . 



$1 82 



$2 32 
28 
30 



1906. 



$1 56 
27 
33 



Niagara County apples go to a cosmopolitan market. Some find 
immediate markets in the large cities of the state, such as Buffalo, 

Rochester, and New 
York, but still larger 
quantities go to more 
general markets in 
the Middle West. A 
few growers store 
their fruit and retail 
in winter at Buffalo 
and Niagara Falls ; 
but the bulk of the 
apples is sold to the 
highest bidding com- 
mission man. Very 
few growers reported 
any price for cider 
or vinegar apples. 
Such markets are 
not worth while. 

Under normal con- 
ditions the bulk of 
apples in the county 
is handled in the 
apple barrel. Up to 
five years ago, the 
sorting table and the 




Fig. 39. — Result of a bad crotch. Three limbs wen- 
started from same place, and when heavy each has 
split off. 



3i6 



Bulletin 262. 



apple barrel were the characteristic features of the apple industry. But 
with the introduction and spread of the scale, important changes have 
occurred. Since 1902, the cider mill and the evaporator have come to 
the fore. In 1902, only .9^ of the apples went to the evaporator. In 
1903, thrs had increased to 2.8^; in 1904, it was still increasing, and had 
run up to about J.^i', while in 1905, the evaporator claimed 34.1^ of 
the crop. This seemed to be the climax, for in 1906, the evaporated por- 
tion had fallen to 27.1;?'. 

There have been three chief causes for the production of so much 
inferior fruit: The apple scab, the codling moth, and the San Jose 
scale. In 1905, there was considerable scab on apples, but since then 
there has been but little. There is considerable loss every year from 
codling moth. But the most potent factor is the scale, which is a pro- 
lific feeder of the evaporating factory. 

Outside of the scale-infested area different conditions prevail. Take, 
for instance, the year of 1905, when our field notes were the most com- 
plete, and another aspect is presented. Our records for that year 
show that in the eastern part of the county the evaporator received 
only three per cent of the crop, whereas for the entire county in the 
same year thirty-four per cent went to the dry-house. Similar con- 
trasts might be constructed for other years. The time seems ripe, then, 
for a fuller recognition of the importance of flighting the scale, and 
every effort should be made to destroy this pest. Every apple grower 
who allows scale to breed in his orchard should feel that he is not only 
injuring his own business, but helping to stigmatize the character of 
the whole county. 



XXVII. Disposal of the Crop 



HOW MARKETED 


1902. 


1903. 


1904. 




! 
Bushels. Per cent. 


Bushels. 


Per cent. 


Bushels. 


Per cent. 




188,692 

33 .622 

2 ,050 


84. I 

150 

■9 


381 ,712 

90 , 606 

13.645 

500 


78. 5 

18.6 

2.8 

. I 


419, 890 

85,059 

39,726 

384 




Sold in bulk 


15.6 















Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County. 



317 



HOW MARKETED. 



190S. 



Bushels. Per cent 



1906. 



Bushels. Per cent 



Sold in barrels... 

Sold in bulk 

Sold to evaporate 



125,043 
17.S00 
73.7S8 



57. » 

8.1 

34.1 



183.449 
13 ,900 
73.183 



67.8 

S.I 

27 . 1 



Income per acre. — The information gathered on this point is displayed 
in two tables. One shows the average gross income per acre for each 
of the five years. The general average for the five-year period is 
$109.20 per acre. This is $16 less per acre than was found for Orleans 
County. The second classification shows how these incomes are dis- 
tributed with reference to the number of orchards and number of acres 
under each group. The grower will find it interesting to study these 
tables with reference to his own orchard. 

XXVIII. Average Gross Income per Acre 

igo2 $112 .00 

1903 129 .00 

1904 98.00 

1905 103 .00 

1906 104 . 00 

General average for the five-year period $109 . 20 

XXIX. Classification of Incomes 



INCOME PER ACRE. 



Number Number 
orchards. 1 acres. 



Number Number 
orchards, acres. 



Number Number 
orchards, acres. 



o- 25. 
26- 50. 
51- 75. 
76-100 . 

IOI-I2S . 
126-150. 
151-175. 
176—200. 
201-225 . 
226-250 . 
251-275. 
2 76-300 . 
301-325. 
326-350. 
351-375. 
376-400. 
401-425. 
426-450. 
451-475. 
476-500. 

Over 500 



16 
10 
23 
33 
33 
35 

21 
28 

IS 

27 
30 



161 
96 

302 

3IS 

322 

585 

Sii 

314 

269 
542 
560 
883 

345 

3 75 



246 
457 
593 
643 
828 
557 
369 
744 
796 
112 
262 
32 
S7 
351 



71 

104 

720 

126 

xio 

98 

68 

16 



704 

1 . 131 

1 , 146 

I 241 

1,281 

1,113 

560 

147 

278 

547 

327 

35 

34 
400 



3i8 



Bulletin 262. 
Classification of Incomes 



INCOME PER ACRE. 



o- 25 
26- so 
SI- 75 
76-100 

10I-I2S 
126-xSO 

ISI-I7S 
176-200 
201-225 
226-250 
251-275 
276-300 
301-325 
326-350 
351-375 
376-400 
401-425 
426-450 
Over 45 



Number 
orchards. 



118 
82 

108 
70 
23 
29 
10 
34 
6 



Number 
acres. 



21 
931 
978 
953 

784 
255 
582 
207 
280 
249 



1906. 



Number 
orchards. 



100 
79 

43 
15 
25 
42 
16 



Number 
acres. 



Five-year 

average 

per cent 

orchards.(a) 



804 
718 
890 
673 
171 
445 
404 
213 
733 
288 

12 



s-s 

J4.I 
14.0 

15-2 

12.3 

8.1 

7.1 

5.6 

4.6 

3-1 

2.3 

1.8 

• 5 

2-5 

.8 

.4 

•9 



(a) Less than five years in a few cases. 




Fig. 40. — A sample of good pruning, showing the healing process well under way 



Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County. 319 

SUMMARY 

Extent of the survey. — During the summers of 1905, 1906 and 1907, 
over 716* orchards containing 6,000 acres were canvassed in Niagara 
County. There are approximately 24,200 acres set to apples. Repre- 
sentative districts all through the county were examined. 

Age of tJie trees. — A majority of the orchards were planted thirty to 
forty-five years ago. Five and four-tenths per cent were set out before 
1850, 81. 1 per cent were planted between 1850 and 1879, and 13.6 per 
cent since 1880. During the past seven years, the scale has deterred 
many from planting orchards, but the decreased plantings began twenty- 
seven years ago, and the acreage has been on the decline since 1880. 

Soils. — The Dunkirk loam and the Dunkirk clay loam are the best 
soils for apple production. Clyde loam gives the lowest yields. Too 
little attention has been given to drainage, and much loss has been 
sustained because of this neglect. 

Drainage. — Fifty-two and two-tenths per cent of the orchards have 
good drainage, about twenty-six per cent have fair drainage, and about 
eleven per cent have poor drainage. About eleven per cent have locally 
bad drainage. A little money spent in draining the orchard land would 
prove a good investment. 

Fertilization.- — Barnyard manure is used more itihan any other fer- 
tilizer. Sixty-one per cent of the orchards receive manure, about four 
per cent are given commercial fertilizer, and abmt twenty-two per cent 
are not fertilized at all. Cover-crops are used to the extent of nearly ten 
per cent. 

Tillage. — Approximately fifty-one per cent of the orchards have been 
tilled for five or more years, and twenty-eight and nine-tenths per cent 
have been in sod for the same time. Five-year averages show larger 
yield and greater income for tilled than untilled orchards. The per- 
centage of tilled orchards seems to be on the increase, for in 1905 fifty- 
two per cent of the orchards were tilled. There are many sod orchards 
that are well cared for. Of the sod orchards, those not pastured have 
given the largest average yields. Where pasturing has been practiced, 
hog treatment has proved the best. 

Enemies of the apple. — During the last six years the scale and cod- 
ling moth have been the worst enemies of the apple. Collar rot is bad 
only in sections, and generally on poorly drained land. More attention 
must be given to spraying to insure good quality of fruit. 

Spraying. — About four-fifths of the orchards are generally sprayed. 
The presence of the scale has made very little difference in spraying 



* Includes 135 orchards not embraced in Table I on page 288. 



320 Bulletin 262. 

practices, although it has increased the kinds of spray mixtures used. 
Very few of the scale-infested orchards have been treated with scale- 
killing mixtures. Paris green with Bordeaux has been most generally 
used. When averages are considered, there seems to be a definite rela- 
tion between spraying and yield and income. However, this does not 
hold with four sprayings, probably because of other disturbing factors. 
Unsprayed orchards give an average yield of 261 bushels, with an aver- 
age income of $45 per acre. One spraying gives 364 bushels, and an 
income of $93 per acre. Two sprayings yield 509 bushels, and give 
$101. Three sprayings carry the yield to 577 bushels, and the income 
to $171. The largest number of orchards and the greatest number of 
acres are given two sprayings per year. In well-cared-for orchards, 
the maximum yield comes with three sprayings ; but the maximum in- 
come follows four sprayings. 

Pruning. — In sixty-six and seven-tenths per cent of the orchards com- 
pared as to character of pruning, the pruning is good or fair, in twenty- 
five and three-tenths per cent it is poor or neglected, while in eight per 
cent no pruning is done. Efifective and profitable spraying is impossible 
where insufficient pruning is done. More pruning and greater regularity 
of the work must be adopted in order to fight successfully the serious 
pests. 

Distance between trees. — The average distance between trees is 33.8 
feet. The favorite distance is 36 x 36. Nearly half of the orchards were 
set from 36 x 36 to 40 x 40. In forty-seven per cent of the orchards 
the trees are too close. 

Rented orchards. — Very few orchards have been rented. Only thir- 
teen and three-tenths per cent have been held by tenants during recent 
years, and of these forty-six and two-tenths per cent have been let out for 
at least five-year periods. 

Yields. — The average yields per acre have been : 1902, 236 bushels ; 
1903, 197 bushels; 1904, 195 bushels; 1905, 155 bushels; 1906, 179 
bushels. The average for the five years is 192.4 bushels. 

Prices. — The average prices per barrel have been: 1902, $2.00; 1903, 
$1.82; 1904, $2.32; 1905, $2.18; 1906, $1.56. 

Income per acre. — The average gross incomes per acre .have been: 
1902, $112; 1903, $129; 1904, $98; 1905, $103; 1906, $104. The general 
average for the five years is $109.20. 

Varieties. — About thirty kinds of apples are grown in the county. 
Rhode Island Greening, Baldwin and Northern Spy are the chief vari- 
eties„ Russets, King, Tolman, Twenty-ounce and Hubbardston, how- 
ever, are grown to considerable extent. 



I P n 



